bash
Variables have a dual nature since eache variable is also an array.
To define a variable, simply: foo=42
To reference the value of a variable: echo $foo
To remove a variable= unset foo
To assign a value which contains spaces, quote it: foo="x j z"
Since every variable is an array, the variable itself is an implicit reference to the first index (0), so:
echo $foo
# equals to
echo ${foo[0]}
Note: Wrap the variable into curly braces for variable/array manipulation.
You can declare an array with explicitly or with parenthes:
declare -a array_name
array_name[index_1]=value_1
array_name[index_2]=value_2
array_name[index_n]=value_n
# or
array_name=(value_1, value_2, value_n)
To access all elements in an array:
echo ${array[@]}
# or
echo ${array[*]}
To copy an array: copy=("${array[@]}")
Note: double quotes are needed for values conaining white spaces.
Special variables for grabbing arguments in functions and scripts:
$0 # script or shell name
$[1-9] # print the nth arg (1 <= n <= 9)
$# # the number of args
$@ # all args passed
$* # same, but with a subtle difference, see below
$? # exit status of the previously run command (if !=0, it's an error)
$$ # PID of the current shell
$! # PID of the most recently backgrounded process
Note: To know if you are in a subshell:
echo $SHLVL
bash can operate on the value of a variable while deferencing that same variable:
foo="I'm a cat"
echo ${foo/cat/dog}
To replace all instances of a string: echo ${foo//cat/dog}
Note: a replacement operation does not modify the value of the variable.
To delete a substring: echo ${foo/cat}
# and ## remove the shortest and longest prefix of a variable matching a certain pattern:
path="/usr/bin:/bin:/sbin"
echo ${path#/usr} # prints out "/bin:/bin:/sbin"
echo ${path#*/bin} # prints out ":/bin:/sbin"
echo ${path##*/bin} # prints out ":/sbin"
Similarly, % is used for suffuxes.
bash operators operate on both strings and array, so avoid common mistakes such as:
echo ${#array} # wrong: prints out the length of the first element of the array (chars in a string)
echo ${#array[@]} # right: prints out the size of the array
To slice strings and arrays:
echo ${string:6:3} # the first num is the start index, the second one is the size of slice
echo ${array[@]:3:2}
Existence testing operators:
echo ${username-defualt} # prints "default" if username var in unset
echo ${username:-defualt} # checks both for existence and emptiness
echo ${unsetvar:=resetvar} # like "-", but sets the var if it doesn't have a value
echo ${foo+42} # prints "42" if foo is set
echo ${foo?failure: no args} # crashes the program with the given message, if the var is unset
! operator is used for indirect lookup or (indirect reference):
foo=bar
bar=42
echo ${!foo} # print $bar, that is "42"
similarly, with arrays:
letters=(a b c d e)
char=letters[1]
echo ${!char} # prints "b"
As to string declaration, you can use:
- single quotes (
') for literal strings - double quotes (
") for interpolated strings
Mathematical expressions can be declared as follows:
echo $((3 + 3))
# or
((x = 3 + 3)); echo $x
To explicitly declare an integer variable:
declare -i number
number=2+4*10
To dump textual content directly into stdin:
# a file
grep [pattern] < myfile.txt
# a string
grep [pattern] <<< "this is a string"
# a here-document
grep [pattern] <<EOF
first line
second line
etc
EOF
The notation M>&N redirects the output of channel M to channel N, e.g. to redirect stderr to stdout: 2>&1
Note: in bash,
&>equals to2>&1.
Note:
>is the same as1>.
To learn more about redirections, look here.
Capturing stdout can be accomplished as:
echo `date`
# or
echo $(date)
Process substitution involves expanding output of a command into a temporary file which can be read from a command which expects a file to be passed:
cat <(uptime)
# which works as
uptime | cat
wait command waits for a PID's associated process to terminate, but without a PID it waits for all child processes to finish (e.g, it can be used after multiple processes are launched in a for loop):
time-consuming-command &
pid=$!
wait $pid
echo Process $pid finished!
for f in *.jpg
do
convert $f ${f%.jpg}.png &
done
wait
echo All images have been converted!
Glob patterns are automatically expanded to an array of matching strings:
*, any string?, a single char[aGfz], any char between square brackets[a-d], any char betweenaandd
Brace expansion is used to expand elements inside curly braces into a set or sequence:
mkdir /opt/{zotero, skype, office}
# or
echo {0..10}
Control Structures
Conditions are expressed as a command (such as test) whose exit status is mapped to true/false (0/non-zero):
if http -k start
then
echo OK
else
echo KO
fi
# or
if [ "$1" = "-v" ]
then
echo "switching to verbose output"
fi
Note: An alternative syntax for
test [args]is[args].
Tip: Double brackets are safer than single brackets:
[ $a = $b ] # will fail if one of the two variables is empty or contains a whitespace
[ "$a" = "$b" ] # you have to double-quote them to avoid this problem
[[ $a = $b ]] # this instead won't fail
Tip: Additionally, double brackets support:
[[ $a = ?at ]] # glob patterns
[[ $a < $b ]] # lexicographical comparison
[[ $a =~ ^.at ]] # regex patterns with the operator "=~"
To learn more, look here.
Iterations are declared as follows.
while [command]; do [command]; done
# or
for [var] in [array]; do [command]; done
Subroutine (functions) act almost like a separate script. They can see and modify variable defined in the outer scope:
funcion <name> {
# commands
}
# or
<name> () {
# commands
}
Array syntax
arr=() # creates an empty array
arr=(1 2 3) # creates and initializes an array
${arr[2]} # retrieves the 3rd element
${arr[@]} # retrieves all element
${!arr[@]} # retrieves array indices
${#arr[@]} # get array size
arr[0]=3 # overwrites first element
arr+=(4) # appends a value
arr=($(ls)) # saves ls output as an array of filenames
${arr[@]:s:n} # retieves [n] elements starting at index [s]
Note: Beware of array quirks when using
@vs.*:
*combines all args into a single string, while@requotes the individual args- if the var IFS (internal field separator) is set, then elements in
$*are separated by this deimiter value.
Test flag operators
# boolean conditions
-a # &&
-o # ||
# integer comparison
-eq # "equals to"
-ne # "not equal"
-gt # >
-ge # >=
-lt # <
-le # <=
# string comparison
=
== # the pattern is literal if within double brackets and variables/string are within double quotes
!=
< # alphabetical order
> # must be escaped if within single brackets, e.g. "\>"
-z # string is null
-n # string is not null
# file test
-e # file exists
-f # file is a regular file
-d # is a directory
-h/-L # is a symlink
-s # is not zero-size
-r # has read permissions
-w # has write permissions
-x # has execute permissions
-u # SUDI bit is active
-g # SGID bit is active
-k # sticky bit is active
-nt/ot # is newer/older than
To create a simple script:
- put a shebang at the very first line:
#!/bin/bash - write your stuff afterwards
- execute the script from its path (i.e
./script.sh) or sourcing it (i.e.source script.sh)
Note: When you execute the script you are opening a new shell, type the commands in the new shell, copy the output back to your current shell, then close the new shell. Any changes to environment will take effect only in the new shell and will be lost once the new shell is closed. When you
sourcethe script you are typing the commands in your current shell. Any changes to the environment will take effect and stay in your current shell.
Note: source is a synonym for dot operator (i.e. '.') in bash, but not in POSIX sh, so for maximum compatibility use the period: so,
source filename [arguments]is just like. filename [arguments]
References and further reading: